My Avatar

LanternD's Castle

An electronics enthusiast - survive technically

STT 861 Theory of Prob and STT I Lecture Note - 14

2017-12-06

Proof of central limit theorem; multivariate normal distribution and its example; review of the second half of the semester, Poisson approximation vs. normal approximation to binomial distribution; miscellaneous notes of convergence.

Portal to all the other notes

Lecture 14 - Dec 06 2017

Proof of CLT (Central Limit Theorem)

This is the last lecture of this course.

Let $ X_i $ be $ n $ i.i.d distribution. $ \mu=E(X_i) $, $ \sigma^2=Var(X_i) $. WOLOG (without loss of generality), $ \mu=0 $, $ \sigma^2=1 $.

\[S_n=\frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n}X_i}{\sqrt{n}} \rightarrow N(0,1)\]

It is sufficient to show that MGF of $ S_n \rightarrow $ MGF of $ Normal(0,1) $ for all $ t $ near 0.

\[\begin{align*} M_{S_n}(t)=E(e^{tS_n})&=E(\prod_{i=1}^{n}e^{t/\sqrt{n}\cdot X_i}) \\ &=\prod E(e^{t/\sqrt{n}X_i}) \\ &=(E(\exp(t/\sqrt{n}X_i)))^n \\ E(\exp(t/\sqrt{n}X_1))&\triangleq M_{X_1}(u) \end{align*}\]

where $ u=t/\sqrt{n} $.

We will use the following fundamental property of MGF.

\[\frac{d}{du}M_X(0)=E(\frac{d}{du}e^{uX})|_{u=0}=E(X)\] \[\frac{d^2}{du^2}M_X(0)=E(X^2), \frac{d^p}{du^p}M_X(0)=E(X^p)\]

In our case: $ E(X_1)=0, E(X^2)=1 $.

Then expand $ M_X(u) $ using Taylor’s formula.

\[M_{X_1}(u)=M_{X_1}(0) + \frac{dM_X(0)}{du}u + \frac{1}{2}\frac{d^2M(0)}{du^2}+\cdots\]

(This is for $ u $ near 0. )

Therefore,

\[M_{X_1}(u)=1+\frac{1}{2}u^2+O(u^3)\]

for small $ u $.

Next,

\[M_{S_n}(t)=(1+\frac{1}{2}(\frac{t}{\sqrt{n}})^2+\varepsilon(u))^n\]

When $ n\rightarrow\infty $,

\[M_{S_n}(t) \rightarrow \exp(\frac{1}{2}t^2)\]

which is the MGF of N(0,1).

Calculation of the MGF of $Normal(0,\sigma^2)$:

\[\begin{align*} M_Z(t) & = E(e^{tZ}) \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \exp(zt) \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma^2}} \exp(-\frac{z^2}{2\sigma^2})dz \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma^2}} \exp(-\frac{1}{2\sigma^2}(z^2-2\sigma^2tz+\sigma^4t^2-\sigma^4t^2))dz \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma^2}} \exp(-\frac{1}{2\sigma^2}(z-2\sigma^2t)^2+\sigma^4t^2)) dz \\ &= \exp(\frac{1}{2}\sigma^2t^2) \end{align*}\]

(this part is in the homework 6.)

Multivariate Normal

Quick review from a new example.

Example 1

Let $X=(X_1,X_2,…,X_k) $ be a normal vector. Assume $ E(X_i)=\mu_i $ and $ Cov(X_i,X_j)=\Sigma_{ij} $. Find the MGF of the entire vector.

\[M_X(t_1,...,t_k)=E(\exp (\sum_{i=1}^{k}t_iX_i))\]

Let $ Y=t_iX_i $. Since $ X $ is multivariate normal, then $ Y $ is normal. We just need to compute the expectation and variance of $ Y $.

\[\begin{align*} E(Y) & = \sum_{i=1}^{k} t_iE(X_i) = \sum_{i=1}^{k}t_i\mu_i \\ Var(Y)&= \sum_{i=1}^{k}\sum_{j=1}^{k}Cov(t_iX_i,t_jX_j) \\ &=\sum\sum t_it_j \Sigma_{ij} =\sigma^2\\ M_t(X)&=E(e^Y)=E(e^{\mu+\sigma Z}) \end{align*}\]

where $ Z\sim N(0,1) $.

\[M_t(X) = e^\mu E(e^{\sigma Z}) =M_Z(\sigma)e^\mu = e^{\mu+\frac{1}{2}\sigma^2}\]

We have proved that

\[M_X(t) = e^{\mu+\frac{1}{2}\sigma^2}\]

where $ t=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\mu_it_i $, $ \sigma^2=t^T\Sigma t $. Finally, the full form of MGF of $ Y $ is:

\[M_X(t) = \exp(\sum_{i=1}^{k}\mu_it_i + \frac{1}{2}t^T\Sigma t)\]

We can identify what it means for multivariate normal vectors to be independent of each other.

$ X=((X^{(A)})(X^{(B)}))^T $ with length $ k=k_A+k_B $, then if $ X^{(A)} $ is independent of $ X^{(B)} $,

\[\Sigma= \begin{pmatrix} \Sigma^{(A)} & 0\\ 0 & \Sigma^{(B)} \end{pmatrix}\]

This also implies that if a normal vector has a block diagonal covariance matrix, then the corresponding two subvectors are independent.

Really Important Example - Example 2

Let $ X=(X_1, X_2,…,X_k) $ be i.i.d $ N(\mu,\sigma^2) $. Let $ \bar{X}=\frac{1}{n}(X_1+X_2+\cdots+X_k )$ (empirical mean)

Answer:

\[\begin{align*} Cov(\bar{X}, X_i) & =E\Big((\bar{X}-\mu)(X_i-\mu)\Big) \\ &=\frac{1}{n}E\Big(\big(\sum_{j=1}^{n}(X_j-\mu)\big)(X_i-\mu)\Big) \\ &=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{j=1}^{n}E\Big((X_j-\mu)(X_i-\mu)\Big)\\ &=\Sigma_{j\neq i} + \frac{\sigma^2}{n} = \frac{\sigma^2}{n} \end{align*}\] \[\begin{align*} Cov(\bar{X},X_i-\bar{X}) & = Cov(\bar{X}, X_i) -Cov(\bar{X}, \bar{X})\\ &= \frac{\sigma^2}{n} - \frac{\sigma^2}{n} = 0 \end{align*}\]

this proves that the bivariate $ (\bar{X}, X_i-\bar{X}) $ is bivariate normal since the original $ X $ is multivariate normal and also $ \bar{X} $ and $ X_i-\bar{X} $ are independent because their covariance is 0.

Since $ X_i-\bar{X} $ and $ \bar{X} $ are independent for fixed $ i $, this is still true of $ (X_i-\bar{X})^2 $ and $ \bar{X} $.

Therefore, the entire vector $ Y=(X_i-\bar{X})^n_{i=1} $ is independent of $ \bar{X} $. In fact, any function of $ Y $ is independent of $ \bar{X} $. In particular $ S^2 $ is independent of $ \bar{X} $.

Also,

\[\frac{(n-1)S^2}{\sigma^2}=\sum_{i=1}^{n}(\frac{X_i-\bar{X}}{\sigma})^2\]

This is all i.i.d.

This is Chi-Square distribution $ \chi^2(n-1) $.

Review of the Second Part of the Semester

When to use Poisson and when to use Normal to approximate a series of Bernoulli trials?

Poisson Approximation Case

$ X_i \sim Bernoulli(p) $ i.i.d. For example, $ X_i=1 $ vote for Dr. Jill Stein (or Gary Johnson), $ X_i = 0$ otherwise.

$ P=P(X_i=1) $ is small. What if $ p=\lambda n $ where $ n $ is the # of trials?

Then $ Y_n=X_1+X_2+\cdots + X_n, Y\sim Bin (n,p) $,

\[E(Y_n) = np=\lambda\]

Since average # of successes is constant $ \lambda $ then $ Bin(n,p)\approx Poisson(\lambda) $. Range $ 0.2 \leq \lambda \leq 10 $.

Note: $ Var(Y_n)=np(1-p) = \lambda(1-\frac{\lambda}{n}) \approx\lambda $. If $ p=\frac{\lambda}{n}+O(\frac{1}{n}) $ then $ Bin(n,p) \approx Poisson(\lambda) $ still holds.

Normal Approximation Case

it works for Binomial and many other ``partial sums’’ (like Negative Binomial).

In Binomial case, assume $ n\rightarrow \infty $ and $ p $ is fixed. $ \lambda\neq np $ here, not constant.

Let $ Y=X_1+\cdots+X_n \sim Bin(n,p)$

\[E(Y_n) = np\rightarrow\infty\] \[Var(Y_n)= np(1-p)\rightarrow\infty\]

Let

\[Z_n=\frac{Y_n-np}{\sqrt{np(1-p)}}\]

then $ Z_n\rightarrow N(0,1) $, by CLT.

Note: Unlike Poisson approximation, CLT (Normal approximation) works for any $ X_i $ i.i.d as long as $ Var(X_i)=\sigma^2<\infty $.

$ X_n\rightarrow X $ in distribution $ \Leftrightarrow F_{X_n}(x)\rightarrow F_X(x) $ for all $ x $

($ X_n $ is a sequence of random variables, $ X $ is a random variable)

Quick notes:



Disqus Comment 0